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Suleiman during the in 1522 Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, eventually suppressing a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the from the —something his great-grandfather had failed to achieve because of 's strong defense in the region. Its capture was vital in removing the Hungarians and Croats who, following the defeats of the, and the, remained the only formidable force who could block further Ottoman gains in Europe.

Suleiman encircled and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the. Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, fell in August 1521. The fall of Christendom's major strongholds spread fear across Europe. As the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire to was to note, 'The capture of Belgrade was at the origin of the dramatic events which engulfed Hungary. It led to the death of, the capture of, the occupation of, the ruin of a flourishing kingdom and the fear of neighboring nations that they would suffer the same fate.' The road to Hungary and lay open, but Suleiman turned his attention instead to the Eastern island of, the home base of the. In the summer of 1522, taking advantage of the large navy he inherited from his father, Suleiman dispatched an armada of some 400 ships towards Rhodes, while personally leading an army of 100,000 across Asia Minor to a point opposite the island itself.

Here Suleiman built a large fortification, that served as a base for the. Following the brutal five-month, Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the to depart. Ottoman As relations between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Central Europe, and on 29 August 1526 he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1506–26) at the. In its wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed, and the Ottoman Empire became the preeminent power in Central Europe. Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented: 'I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty.' While Suleiman was campaigning in Hungary, tribes in central Anatolia (in ) revolted under the leadership of. Some Hungarian nobles proposed that, who was ruler of neighboring Austria and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs.

However, other nobles turned to the nobleman, who was being supported by Suleiman. Under and his brother Ferdinand I, the Habsburgs reoccupied Buda and took possession of Hungary. Reacting in 1529, Suleiman marched through the valley of the Danube and regained control of Buda; in the following autumn his forces laid. This was to be the Ottoman Empire's most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive to the West. With a reinforced garrison of 16,000 men, the Austrians inflicted the first defeat on Suleiman, sowing the seeds of a bitter Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry that lasted until the 20th century.

His second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, as Ottoman forces were delayed by the and failed to reach Vienna. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plagued by bad weather, forcing them to leave behind essential siege equipment, and was hobbled by overstretched supply lines. King of with Suleiman in 1556 By the 1540s a renewal of the conflict in Hungary presented Suleiman with the opportunity to avenge the defeat suffered at Vienna.

In 1541 the Habsburgs attempted to lay siege to Buda but were repulsed, and more Habsburg fortresses were captured by the Ottomans in two consecutive campaigns in 1541 and 1544 as a result, Ferdinand and Charles were forced to conclude a humiliating five-year treaty with Suleiman. Ferdinand renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary and was forced to pay a fixed yearly sum to the Sultan for the Hungarian lands he continued to control.

Of more symbolic importance, the treaty referred to Charles V not as 'Emperor' but as the 'King of Spain', leading Suleiman to identify as the true 'Caesar'. Ottoman–Safavid War. Miniature depicting Suleiman marching with an army in, summer 1554 As Suleiman stabilized his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to the ever-present threat posed by the of. Two events in particular were to precipitate a recurrence of tensions.

First, had the governor loyal to Suleiman killed and replaced with an adherent of the Shah, and second, the governor of had defected and sworn allegiance to the Safavids. As a result, in 1533, Suleiman ordered his to lead an army into eastern Asia Minor where he retook and occupied without resistance. Having joined Ibrahim in 1534, Suleiman made a push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territory instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to harassment of the Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior.

When in the following year Suleiman made a grand entrance into, he greatly enhanced his prestige by restoring the tomb of, the founder of the school of Islamic law to which the Ottomans adhered. Attempting to defeat the Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. As in the previous attempt, Tahmasp avoided confrontation with the Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, using tactics in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the. Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and the region, a lasting presence in the province of, control of the western half of and some forts in. In 1553 Suleiman began his third and final campaign against the Shah.

Having initially lost territories in to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shah's army continued its strategy of avoiding the Ottomans, leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any significant gain. In 1554, a settlement was signed which was to conclude Suleiman's Asian campaigns. Part of the treaty included and confirmed the return of Tabriz, but secured Baghdad, lower, the mouths of the river Euphrates and, as well as part of the.

The Shah also promised to cease all raids into Ottoman territory. Campaigns in the Indian Ocean.

Ottoman fleet in the in the 16th century. Ottoman ships had been sailing in the since the year 1518. Such as, and are known to have voyaged to the imperial ports of, and.

The Mughal Emperor himself is known to have exchanged six documents with Suleiman the Magnificent. In the Indian Ocean, Suleiman led several naval campaigns against the in an attempt to remove them and reestablish trade with. In was captured by the Ottomans in 1538, in order to provide an Ottoman base for raids against Portuguese possessions on the western coast of modern India and. Sailing on to India, the Ottomans failed against the Portuguese at the in September 1538, but then returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100 pieces of artillery. From this base, Sulayman Pasha managed to take control of the whole country of Yemen, also taking.

Aden rose against the Ottomans however and invited the Portuguese instead, so that the Portuguese were in control of the city until its seizure by in the. With its strong control of the, Suleiman successfully managed to dispute control of the Indian trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire of throughout the 16th century. His admiral Piri Reis led an Ottoman fleet in the Indian Ocean, achieving the in 1552. From 1526 till 1543, Suleiman stationed over 900 Turkish soldiers to fight alongside the led by during the. After the, the Ottoman Empire would in 1559 absorb the weakened Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion fathered Ottoman rule in and the.

This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the Portuguese Empire with its close ally the. In 1564, Suleiman received an embassy from (a sultanate on, in modern ), requesting Ottoman support against the Portuguese. As a result, an was launched, which was able to provide extensive military support to the Acehnese. The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly.

The discovery of the in 1488 initiated in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Ajuran Sultanate allied with the Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese. Mediterranean and North Africa.

Soliman Magnificul Serial

(left) and Suleiman the Magnificent (right) initiated a from the 1530s. Having consolidated his conquests on land, Suleiman was greeted with the news that the fortress of in (the modern, peninsular Greece) had been lost to admiral,. The presence of the Spanish in the Eastern Mediterranean concerned Suleiman, who saw it as an early indication of Charles V's intention to rival Ottoman dominance in the region.

Recognizing the need to reassert naval preeminence in the, Suleiman appointed an exceptional naval commander in the form of, known to Europeans as. Once appointed admiral-in-chief, Barbarossa was charged with rebuilding the Ottoman fleet, to such an extent that the Ottoman navy equaled in number those of all other Mediterranean countries put together. In 1535, Charles V won an important victory against the Ottomans at, which together with the war against the following year, led Suleiman to accept proposals from to form.

In 1538, the Spanish fleet was defeated by Barbarossa at the, securing the eastern Mediterranean for the Turks for 33 years, until the defeat at the in 1571. East of, huge Muslim territories in were annexed. The of, and became autonomous provinces of the Empire, serving as the leading edge of Suleiman's conflict with Charles V, whose attempt to drive out the Turks failed in 1541. The piracy carried on thereafter by the of North Africa can be seen in the context of the wars against Spain. The Siege of Malta in 1565: Arrival of the Turkish fleet, by In 1542, facing a common Habsburg enemy, Francis I sought to renew the. As a result, Suleiman dispatched 100 galleys under Barbarossa to assist the French in the western Mediterranean. Barbarossa pillaged the coast of and before reaching France, where Francis made the Ottoman admiral's naval headquarters.

Barbarossa attacked and in 1543. By 1544, a peace between Francis I and Charles V had put a temporary end to the alliance between France and the Ottoman Empire. Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew the ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded Malta in 1565, undertaking the, which began on 18 May and lasted until 8 September, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of in the Hall of St. Michael and St. At first it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on, with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half the Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 10,000 Ottoman troops and the victory of the local Maltese citizenry. Administrative reforms.

Suleiman the Magnificent receives an ambassador (painting by ) While Sultan Suleiman was known as 'the Magnificent' in the West, he was always Kanuni Suleiman or 'The Lawgiver' ( قانونی) to his own Ottoman subjects. As the historian notes, 'Not only was he a great military campaigner, a man of the sword, as his father and great-grandfather had been before him. He differed from them in the extent to which he was also a man of the pen. He was a great legislator, standing out in the eyes of his people as a high-minded sovereign and a magnanimous exponent of justice'. The overriding law of the empire was the, or Sacred Law, which as the divine law of was outside of the Sultan's powers to change.

Yet an area of distinct law known as the Kanuns ( قانون, canonical legislation) was dependent on Suleiman's will alone, covering areas such as criminal law, land tenure and taxation. He collected all the judgments that had been issued by the nine Ottoman Sultans who preceded him.

After eliminating duplications and choosing between contradictory statements, he issued a single legal code, all the while being careful not to violate the basic laws of Islam. It was within this framework that Suleiman, supported by his, sought to reform the legislation to adapt to a rapidly changing empire. When the Kanun laws attained their final form, the code of laws became known as the kanun‐i Osmani ( قانون عثمانی), or the 'Ottoman laws'. Suleiman's legal code was to last more than three hundred years.

Suleiman gave particular attention to the plight of the, Christian subjects who worked the land of the. His Kanune Raya, or 'Code of the Rayas', reformed the law governing levies and taxes to be paid by the rayas, raising their status above serfdom to the extent that Christian would migrate to Turkish territories to benefit from the reforms. The Sultan also played a role in protecting the Jewish subjects of his empire for centuries to come. In late 1553 or 1554, on the suggestion of his favorite doctor and dentist, the Spanish Jew, the Sultan issued a ( فرمان) formally denouncing against the Jews. Furthermore, Suleiman enacted new criminal and police legislation, prescribing a set of fines for specific offenses, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation.

In the area of taxation, taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. In addition to taxes, officials who had fallen into disrepute were likely to have their land and property confiscated by the Sultan. Education was another important area for the Sultan.

Schools attached to mosques and funded by religious foundations provided a largely free education to Muslim boys in advance of the Christian countries of the time. In his capital, Suleiman increased the number of mektebs ( مكتب, primary schools) to fourteen, teaching boys to read and write as well as the principles of Islam. Young men wishing further education could proceed to one of eight ( مدرسه, colleges), whose studies included grammar, metaphysics, philosophy, astronomy and astrology. Higher medreses provided education of university status, whose graduates became imams ( امام) or teachers. Educational centers were often one of many buildings surrounding the courtyards of mosques, others included libraries, baths, soup kitchens, residences and hospitals for the benefit of the public.

Cultural achievements. Of Suleiman the Magnificent Under Suleiman's patronage, the Ottoman Empire entered the golden age of its. Hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the اهل حرف Ehl-i Hiref, 'Community of the Craftsmen') were administered at the Imperial seat, the. After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to the breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts, the earliest of documents dating from 1526 list 40 societies with over 600 members. The Ehl-i Hiref attracted the empire's most talented artisans to the Sultan's court, both from the Islamic world and from the recently conquered territories in Europe, resulting in a blend of Arabic, Turkish and European cultures. Artisans in service of the court included painters, book binders, furriers, jewellers and goldsmiths.

Whereas previous rulers had been influenced by (Suleiman's father, Selim I, wrote poetry in Persian), Suleiman's patronage of the arts saw the Ottoman Empire assert its own artistic legacy. Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the (nom de plume) Muhibbi ( محبی, 'Lover'). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as the well-known Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story.

When his young son died in 1543, he composed a moving to commemorate the year: Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed. In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including and.

The literary historian E. Gibb observed that 'at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan'. Suleiman's most famous verse is. Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight.

My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love. The most beautiful among the beautiful. My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf. My plants, my sweet, my rose, the one only who does not distress me in this room. My Istanbul, my karaman, the earth of my Anatolia My Badakhshan, my Baghdad and Khorasan My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of misery. I'll sing your praises always I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy.

Grand Vizier Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha. Ottoman manufactured during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. Mustafa was confronted with a choice: either he appeared before his father at the risk of being killed; or, if he refused to attend, he would be accused of betrayal. In the end, Mustafa chose to enter his father's tent, confident that the support of the army would protect him. Busbecq, who claims to have received an account from an eyewitness, describes Mustafa's final moments.

As Mustafa entered his father's tent, Suleiman's attacked Mustafa, with the young prince putting up a brave defence. Suleiman, separated from the struggle only by the linen hangings of the tent, peered through the chamber of his tent and 'directed fierce and threatening glances upon the mutes, and by menacing gestures sternly rebuked their hesitation. Thereupon, the mutes in their alarm, redoubling their efforts, hurled Mustafa to the ground and, throwing the bowstring round his neck, strangled him.'

Cihangir is said to have died of grief a few months after the news of his half-brother's murder. The two surviving brothers, and, were given command in different parts of the empire. Within a few years, however, civil war broke out between the brothers, each supported by his loyal forces. With the aid of his father's army, Selim defeated Bayezid in in 1559, leading the latter to seek refuge with the along with his four sons. Following diplomatic exchanges, the Sultan demanded from the that Bayezid be either extradited or executed.

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In return for large amounts of gold, the Shah allowed a Turkish executioner to strangle Bayezid and his four sons in 1561, clearing the path for Selim's succession to the throne five years later. The Ottoman Empire at the time of the death of Suleiman the Magnificent On 6 September 1566, Suleiman, who had set out from Constantinople to command an expedition to Hungary, died before an Ottoman victory at the in Hungary and the Grand Vizier kept his death secret during the retreat for the enthronement of. Just the night before the sickly sultan died in his tent, two months before he would have turned 72. The sultan’s body was taken back to Istanbul to be buried, while his heart, liver, and some other organs were buried in, outside. A mausoleum was constructed above the burial site, and came to be regarded as a holy place and pilgrimage site. Within a decade a mosque and hospice were built near it, and the site was protected by a salaried garrison of several dozen men.

(tomb) of Sultan Suleiman at The formation of Suleiman's legacy began even before his death. Throughout his reign literary works were commissioned praising Suleiman and constructing an image of him as an ideal ruler, most significantly by Celalzade Mustafa, of the empire from 1534–1557. Later Ottoman writers applied this idealized image of Suleiman to the Near Eastern literary genre of advice literature ( ), urging sultans to conform to his model of rulership and to maintain the empire's institutions in their sixteenth-century form. Such writers were pushing back against the political and institutional of the empire after the middle of the sixteenth century, and portrayed deviation from the norm as it had existed under Suleiman as evidence of the decline of the empire.

Western historians, failing to recognize that these 'decline writers' were working within an established literary genre and often had deeply personal reasons for criticizing the empire, long took their claims at face value and consequently adopted the idea that the empire entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman. Since the 1980s this view has been thoroughly reexamined, and modern scholars have come to overwhelmingly reject the idea of decline, labeling it an 'untrue myth.' At the time of Suleiman's death, the Ottoman Empire was one of the world's. Suleiman's conquests had brought under the control of the Empire major cities (such as ), many provinces (reaching present day and ), and most of. His expansion into Europe had given the Ottoman Turks a powerful presence in the European balance of power. Indeed, such was the perceived threat of the Ottoman Empire under the reign of Suleiman that Austria's ambassador warned of Europe's imminent conquest: 'On the Turks' side are the resources of a mighty empire, strength unimpaired, habituation to victory, endurance of toil, unity, discipline, frugality and watchfulness. Can we doubt what the result will be?.

When the Turks have settled with Persia, they will fly at our throats supported by the might of the whole East; how unprepared we are I dare not say.' Suleiman's legacy was not, however, merely in the military field. The French traveler bears witness a century later to the 'strong agricultural base of the country, the well being of the peasantry, the abundance of staple foods and the pre-eminence of organization in Suleiman's government'. Funeral of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent Even thirty years after his death, 'Sultan Solyman' was quoted by the English playwright as a military prodigy in, where the Prince of boasts about his prowess by saying that he defeated Suleiman in three battles (Act 2, Scene 1). Through the distribution of court patronage, Suleiman also presided over a Golden Age in Ottoman arts, witnessing immense achievement in the realms of architecture, literature, art, theology and philosophy.

Today the skyline of the and of many cities in modern Turkey and the former Ottoman provinces, are still adorned with the architectural works of. One of these, the, is the final resting place of Suleiman: he is buried in a domed mausoleum attached to the mosque. Nevertheless, assessments of Suleiman's reign have frequently fallen into the trap of the of history. The administrative, cultural, and military achievements of the age were a product not of Suleiman alone, but also of the many talented figures who served him, such as grand viziers and, the, who played a major role in legal reform, and and chronicler Celalzade Mustafa, who played a major role in bureaucratic expansion and in constructing Suleiman's legacy.